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THE
ART OF PROPAGANDA:
NATIONALISTIC THEMES IN THE ART OF NORTH KOREA
The
Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, or North Korea, is perhaps the
most reclusive nation the world has ever known, and along with Cuba is
one of the
only two remaining Cold War nations. Located on the northern half
of the Korean Peninsula, North Korea’s northern border along the Yalu
River is shared with China, and with Russia at the northeastern most
corner,
while the southern portion of the peninsula is home to the Republic
of Korea, or South Korea. With the Yellow Sea on the west, the
east the Sea of Japan (called the East Sea by both Koreas) on the east,
China to the north, and the DMZ (Demilitarized Zone – the most heavily
guarded border on earth), a truly isolated, nationalistic, and
xenophobic
society has been created and maintained. One area that permits outsiders some notion of the extent that nationalism and indoctrination occurs in North Korea is the arts, particularly those items most prominently viewed in everyday life. The primary items in this category are buildings, monuments, paintings, posters, and the performing arts, which as a rule are nationalistic in content. (Yoo, 2000) Traditional arts will also be examined in the context that they are presented as an expression of the superiority of the Korean people, and therefore as a tool of indoctrination and propaganda. (Storey & English, 2001: 373) Because the power of the state in North Korea intimately controls all aspects of its citizen’s lives, any analysis of the art of North Korea must necessarily include elements related to the agenda of the state. More specifically, the art of North Korea has been influenced by the personality cults of its founder, the late Kim Il Sung, as well as his son who is the current leader of North Korea, Kim Jong Il, both of whom have been portrayed as having mythical and God-like qualities. Therefore; To understand art in North Korea today, we have to first look at the transformations that have taken place in art and culture in that country since the end of the Japanese occupation… the North Korean government undertook a sweeping ideological campaign, including a program of cultural politics, to eliminate all vestiges of Japanese thinking and to create a new society. To complete this revolutionary thinking… the government would recruit the correct cultural authorities and create the proper cultural infrastructures. (Kim, 2000)This paper attempts to make clear the inextricable relationship between the art of North Korea after 1945 and the leadership cults of Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il, thus showing that art of North Korea is, in reality, the art of propaganda.
In order
to understand why North Korea has chosen this path, and how that path
effects the art of the nation, one cannot overlook the long history of
the peninsula, which reveals wave after wave of devastation and
destruction brought by foreign invaders from ancient times until a few
decades ago. From the north came frequent invasions from the
Mongols, Khitans, and Chinese, and by the Japanese from the south, who
sought to use the peninsula as a path for attacking China. In the
late nineteenth century Korea’s, then the Chosun Dynasty’s, reclusive
habits earned it the nickname
“The Hermit Kingdom,” a trait still glaringly evident in the
North. At the same time Korea found itself at the center of a
power struggle
concerning China, Japan, and Russia, who where ally vying for the right
to control Korea. Eventually Imperial Japan won the right to
control
Korea by defeating China and Russia, and Korea was officially annexed
to
the Japanese Empire in 1910.
The period of Japanese rule, also know as the Colonial Period, lasted from 1910 until the defeat of Japan at the end of World War II (WWII) in 1945. During the Colonial Period Korea underwent a transformation from a completely agrarian society to a semi-industrial state. Thus many workers went from the countryside and the farm to the city and the factory. While the overall effect of this modernization increased production of rice and some manufactured items, a latent effect was also apparent; Korea became very fertile ground for communist doctrine, especially in the more heavily industrialized North. These events only served to reinforce the already xenophobic nature of many Koreans, and with the Cold War approaching; the combination of events assisted those with isolationist inclinations to take the reigns of power in North Korea.
The timing of events at the end of WWII where ideal for Kim Il Sung, the founder of North Korea who ruled for more than four decades. Kim was born on the day the Titanic sank, April 15, 1912, near Pyongyang, Korea, (Cumings, 1997: 396), and much of his early childhood and education was spent in China. As a teenager he joined the anti-Japanese gorilla fighters in Manchuria, and eventually he worked his way up the ranks to become a general, but was forced to flee to the Soviet Union in 1941, where he remained until the end of the war. When Korea was liberated from the Japanese by the United States in the South, and the Soviet Union in the North, Kim returned to the Northern Soviet occupied territory as a major in the Soviet army. (Suh, 1988: 61) The Cold War was just beginning, and the Soviets needed a Korean figurehead who would implement their ideology; Kim Il Sung was a dedicated communist who was known and trusted by the Soviets, and the choice was made to promote him as the leader of North Korea. (Suh, 1988: 63) Soon historical studies in the North began to blend in “grossly exaggerated accounts of his partisan exploits with traditional Korean history.” (Suh, 1988: 147) After the Korean War (1959-1953) the personality cult of Kim continued and expanded with the creation of an elaborate tradition centered on Kim.
It cannot
be stressed enough that Kim had total and complete control over North
Korea, and that that influence was apparent in virtually every aspect
of the lives of the entire population. In the context of the
subject of this paper, North Korean art, the political situation is of
the utmost importance. While most nations would cringe at such
blatant propaganda, “North Koreans are told they are intrinsically
ethnically superior, their country is the best in the world, and Kim Il
Sung was the greatest man that has ever lived.” (Storey & English,
2001: 373) Education in the form of communist indoctrination and
the study of Kim Il Sung is the primary method of social control;
In reading, students read about Kim’s guerrilla exploits; in math, the learn to count by counting the number of American soldiers killed or the number of tanks destroyed in the Korea War; in history, they study the Communist revolution in Korea; in music, they sing Kim’s marching songs; and in drama, the reenact his life story. The emphasis on the political never diminishes. (Hunter, 1999: 214)While educational statistics for North Korea look impressive relative to other third-world nations, the actual value of their education is reduced by the enormous volume of time spent on the study of things Kim Il Sung, with estimates being between 20 and 30 percent of all class time. For example, “the average North Korean… knows little history except Korean history and the history of Marxism-Leninism,” and “is not even exposed to traditional Korean literature; he is likely to have read nothing but Communist revolutionary literature written since 1948.” (Hunter, 1999: 217) Perhaps most telling of all is that the “first words many [children] learn [are] ‘Comrade Kim.’ They are taught that Kim is the source of everything good and that they should love, honor, an obey him” (Hunter, 1999: 46) An example of the amazing amount of attention to every detail and preparation that went into the presentation of Kim Il Sung is found with the report of; A CNN camera man who photographed Kim during a birthday meeting with visitors two months before his death noticed tiny lights near the ceiling, which were turned on as Kim rose to speak, giving him an impressive rosy aura whose source was imperceptible to the casual onlooker. (Oberdorfer, 2001: 340)When Kim Il Sung died in 1994 it was reported, “Within a few hours [of Kim’s death], Pyongyang hospital were overrun with heart attack victims.” (Oberdorfer, 2001: 342) The elder Kim had long been preparing his oldest son, Kim Jong Il, for the reigns of leadership and after a three-year mourning period, Kim Jong Il began to take more action in the government. As the son of the “Great Leader” (Kim Il Sung), the “Dear Leader” (Kim Jong Il), has continued to perpetuate both his fathers and his own personality cult under similar circumstances, restrictions, and conditions. Within the context of this personality cult, we may discuss the art of North Korea.
When considering the art of North Korea, one must keep in mind that the art is created not as “Art for Art,” but as “Art for Society's Sake,” (Yoo, 2000) that is, that besides the traditional role of art as decoration, North Korean art after WWII also serves an important purpose in manipulating and educating society; North Korean Art had been made according to the Doctrine of Kim Il-Sung… The Doctrine is as follows ‘…Our Art must be art for the people to reflect on an emotion and feeling, or Kim's Spirit, which is rooted in Revolutionary Literatures written in the time of Anti-Japanese Colonial Policy. Art must be the Chief of Object of the Doctrine.’” (Yoo, 2000)In order for artists to be able to help in the “Communist Revolution,” thereby supporting their nation and Party, they must be “armed by the tradition of Revolution and Policy,” fulfilling their de facto state imposed commitment by creating “Revolutionary works.” The effect is that creativity is suppressed and a premium is placed on political loyalty. (Hunter, 1999: 215) Any method or style not condoned by the state invites certain persecution upon the artist and, in some circumstances, even the possibility of death. (Kang, 2002) Kim, Chan-Dong (2000) further elaborates upon this theme; North Korean art is tied to daily life and the worker. It says that Korean art before Communism reflected the tastes and ideas of the ruling class, that it exploited the people, and that it couldn't artistically resolve class struggle because of ideological pollution during the Japanese occupation. North Korean art seeks "the true tradition" through a revolutionary art that fights against Japan, and proclaims that the revolutionary art under Kim Il-sung is the first revolutionary art, the first to perfectly realize the meaning of the Communist Party, the worker and the people. In this art predominance is given to the monumental and the propagandistic.Most communist societies keep tight control of their populations, guarding closely against the possible contamination of non-communist ideas, and taking aggressive measures to eradicate any offending influences detected or suspected. North Korea defines the upper limits of such actions; Apparently no one is ever above suspicion, especially intellectuals and creative people. Party officials have been particularly zealous in monitoring the activities of North Korea’s top artists and musicians… Whereas most people were supposed to attend mutual criticism sessions once a week, artists and actors were ordered to attend such sessions every other day… Their privileged status bring them no respite from constant political surveillance; quiet the contrary, in some cases, they are actually earmarked as potential troublemakers, who are constantly to be watched and constantly in need of political reindoctrination. (Hunter, 1999: 139)Socialist realism in art is typical of most communist societies, and North Korea is not different in this regard, except in the extent that state control is exercised over the art community. In both the Museum of Fine Arts and the Central Art Museum the works of prerevolutionary artists are either retired or put in out of the way locations, while pieces dedicated to Kim Il Sung are most prominent. (Hunter, 1999: 20)
Besides these
obvious restrictions on style and content, North Korean artists face
another barrier to creativity; a critical shortage of materials and
funding. While the nation has never been wealthy, since the end
of the Cold War North Korea has lost much needed financial and material
support form the former Soviet Union and from China, making art a
relatively low priority. Many artists that had focused on oil
painting in the past have had
to refocus their energies on more traditional “Chosun” painting with
inks, rather than expensive and hard to come by oil paints. (Yoo,
2000)
The combination of state ideology for art, the intense pressure to conform, the lack of resources, and the utter lack of a commercial market or class of citizens with the resources to act as patrons all act to set definite boundaries for North Korean artists. In the end, “it is very hard to find out the artist's own spirit and artistic skill in the art itself, due to the one-sidedness of the political propaganda.” (Yoo, 2000)
Pyongyang, the capitol of North Korea, was mostly destroyed during the Korean War, and was completely rebuilt as a planned city thereafter. The result has been a surprisingly beautiful city full of impressive architecture, monuments, statues, and wide tree-lined avenues. (Cumings, 1997: 395) Monuments are especially numerous, and the countryside is littered with them in places where Kim Il Sung visited, sat, etc. – there are literally thousands of “historical” monuments dedicated to him all over the nation. (Sullivan, 1997) Of course there are monuments to other individuals as well – loyal supporters of Kim Il Sung, communist revolutionaries, and martyrs. The theme is consistent.
It should be noted that one could argue that many other nations have planned cities and have similar patriotic or nationalistic themes and monuments. However, the clear difference between North Korea and other nations is the total and absolute devotion to Kim Il Sung and the communist revolution – traditional Korean arts are a distant second, and also serve to demonstrate the superiority of the Korea people. (Storey & English, 2001: 373) As noted above, the architecture meant to impress is not merely art for art, but art with the purpose of proving the superiority of the North Korean Way – it is a form of propaganda. Besides the ever present themes of Kim Il Sung and communism, another major theme that can be found in North Korea’s architecture is that of being the largest or tallest item of that type in the world. A few examples that mix these themes are;
Much traditional architecture has also been preserved, including Chilseoung and Taedong gates in Pyongyang, and the alleged tomb of Koreas mythological founder, Tan’gun (2,333 BCE), as well as ancient Buddhist temples. For a relatively small and poor nation, these architectural accomplishments are quite impressive. However, considering that thousands of people may have been saved from slow starvation if they had not been built or built on a lesser scale, the monuments and buildings come to represent something much darker than intended; they serve as a testimony to propaganda of the North Korean regime.
While
posters and billboards may be less involved
than architecture or painting, they are still a colorful and effective
means to convey a message to the population; “And always there is
color, whether affixed self-consciously to storefronts and apartment
balconies or leaping out from the ever-present political billboards.”
(Cumings, 1997: 395)
The
most common themes are national reunification, anti-Japanese spirit
(even to this day), and on the communist lifestyle. Of course,
“In
city, town, and village there is Kim Il Sung; everywhere there is Kim
Il Sung, staring down from a billboard or in the subway or on the
apartment
wall…” (Cumings, 1997: 396)
One must remember that in North Korea “Abstract art is forbidden because it is the antithesis of realism; only realism expresses vivid human character and the life of the people in all its concreteness and ‘truth.’” (Yoo, 2000) Thus the two primary types of paintings are landscapes, and, of course, portraits and depictions of the “revolutionary” actions of Kim Il Sung and other revolutionary patriots. Two primary types of landscape styles are used in North Korea, one being the typical realistic style know as illustration or impressionist style, and the other the more nationalistic theme of “Chief [Kim Il Sung] of Object.” Both styles attempt to portray the nation as being new and freshly built, “Therefore, the landscape was not a simple, natural, beautified landscape but the purpose of the work was to try to exaggerate the scenery of a newly cultivated place, a factory region or urban development, etc.” (Yoo, 2000) The multitude of portraits of Kim Il Sung and loyal patriots, and the paintings depicting scenes from his alleged revolutionary past perhaps serve as the prime example of art as propaganda. It should be noted that Kim fought hard, well, and smartly is well documented. Chi Sun-ok, a spy sent by the Japanese in the late 1930s, “reported that Kim Il Sung was an able leader, constantly preaching to his men about international communism and Korean nationalism…” (Suh, 1988: 46) However, in an attempt to create a hero out of himself, he neglected completely all the Chinese and Russian (and Korean) connections that helped him attain his position, claiming non-existent records, and denying contradictory ones. “To refute Kim’s claims is not difficult. But more important than the false claims is his effort to build the tradition of Korean communism and Korean revolutionary spirit upon such fallacious foundation.” (Suh, 1988: 52) He takes credit where it is not due, thus diminishing his already ample accomplishments, and denying others their just recognition.
When
examining the portraits of Kim’s early life, several characteristics
are apparent. Kim, often smiling, is the center of attention, all
eyes are on him, and he is without fail the savior of benevolent leader
of the struggle against the Japanese, committing some filial act,
instructing
others in the ways of communism, directing his “victorious” troops on
the
battle field (Kim did actually lead troops into battle during the
Korean
War), or as the young leader rebuilding the nation. Leadership by
example was a prominent theme. Kim is almost always the tallest
person
in any painting, although he was of about average height, and everyone
appears
to be delighted, or even electrified, to be in his presence.
Realism
is applied to these paintings, but the artists also strive to make
everything
appear new, fresh, and bold, giving the North Korean viewer the feeling
that they, the workers, were building a strong new nation of their own,
on their own, under the leadership of Kim Il Sung, the Great
Leader.
These paintings depict the many glorious scenes of Kim’s alleged career (whether they actually occurred or not) making them a tangible reality for the North Koreans exposed to them constantly. One prime example of a painting that depicts a fantasy of North Korea historians is that of Kim meeting with the peoples of the world, who are praising Kim for his ideology of Juch’e, or his hybrid ideology of self-reliance and Marxism-Leninism. In reality, “Kim had to learn the hard way that he had neither the resources nor the charisma to appeal to the people of the Third World (Suh, 1988: 267). An example of a loyal patriot raised to the North Korea equivalent status of saint is Kim Jeong-Sook, who was also the birth mother of Kim Jong Il, Kim Il Sung’s firstborn son, and the current leader of North Korea. Besides monuments to Kim Jeong-Sook, there are numerous paintings, in the same style of those for Kim Il Sung, depicting her life from childhood to her actions during the Korean War. She is depicted working hard in the fields, fearlessly saving children from a house fire, posting anti-Japanese messages, being interrogated by the Japanese police, diligently studying communist ideals, fighting in battle, defending Kim Il Sung in battle, instructing and comforting troops, and so on. A determined smile with a sense of duty often graces her face in these portraits. She and the other patriots of her class have been elevated to mythical levels.
Without a
doubt, some of the events illustrated in the painting did occur, and
Kim Il Sung, Kim Jeong-Sook, and others like them did take some heroic
actions. However, the histories studied by students, and the
scenes depicted in
the paintings are, in the final analysis, highly unlikely at best, and
known to be outright fabrications at worst; they serve as
propaganda.
Like the other art disciplines in North Korea, the direction performing arts are able take has been predetermined by the doctrine of Kim Il Sung. “‘Arts and culture are subordinated to political and economic aims and considered to be a tool for facilitating a Communist revolution,’ said North Korean defector Chong Song-san in a statement submitted to South Korea's Ministry of Culture and Tourism.” (Choe, 2000) Perhaps in this area more than any other it is essential for the artist to display a patriotic attitude; a painter who is skeptical of the political system can present a portrait or landscape, and his feelings are not visible, but a performing artist is the art, and their soul is on display. In order to facilitate the spirit of nationalism, North Korea began to emphasize traditional folk art in the 1950s. The result has been a group of performers that has evolved into something of a troupe of professional circus performers. (Bae, 2000) In early June of 2000 North Korean circus performers put on a rare show in Seoul, and their South Korean audience gave the troupe a well-deserved standing ovation for their performance. However, “beyond the aim of entertaining audiences, circus troupe members see their performances as a chance to demonstrate the physical strength and intense commitment needed by true devotees to the state.” (Choe, 2000) At any rate, the quality of the North Korean performances is well known, and “…tourists with an interest in traditional arts can benefit – visits to performances of traditional Korean music, singing and dance can easily be arranged. Some even argue that in terms of traditional culture, the North is the ‘real Korea.’” (Storey & English, 2001: 373) For the most part, average North Koreans “know only the revolutionary music sanctioned by the regime for the masses. As it is the only music played on radio to television… of course, the older generation remember such [traditional] music, but they do not hear it often.” (Hunter, 1999: 217-218) However, recently some restrictions have apparently been eased and subjects such as love and every day life are gaining in popularity. (Bae, 2000) Still, these new pop songs, referred to as “mass songs” in the North, are still influenced by and under the control of the communist party, which is necessarily reflected in the content, (Choe, 2000) and dance has deviated little from the traditional folk and later communist sanctioned styles. (Bae, 2000) Unknown to many Westerners, the first passion of the current leader of North Korea, Kim Jong Il, was theater and film directing; Kim Jong Il graduated from Kim Il Sung University in 1964 and went to work in the Central Committee of the Workers Party, with special responsibility for films, theater, and art, which became his lifelong passion. He is credited with the production of six major films and musicals in the early 1970s. (Oberdorfer, 2001: 346)Thus North Korea has experienced a mild liberalization in some areas of the performing arts. Still, the vast majority of movies and theater produced have been “variations on the themes of Kim’s life, especially his life as a guerrilla leader fighting the Japanese. The plays are highly emotional and no the sentimental side.” (Hunter, 1999: 20) Other common movie themes may; feature a low-class workers' party member who loses his confidence in the Communist way of life and finds himself increasingly attracted to capitalist values. In the end, he overcomes his "vices" and emerges as a heroic champion of Communism and a leader in the pursuit of revolution. (Choe, 2000)While not normally considered a “performance” in most nations, the news media is controlled to such a degree in North Korea that it may well qualify. “Hardly a day goes by when the controlled press does not rant on about the fifty-year-old Japanese atrocity, or warn about the imminent revanche of Japanese militarism.” (Cumings, 1997: 397) Although North Korea has very gradually relaxed some of its control in some areas (such as “mass” songs), it is also clear that the performance arts of North Korea, while providing entertainment, still primarily serve as tools for continued indoctrination of the people by repeatedly demonstration “correct” behaviors.
This paper has examined the primary areas of North Korean art -
buildings, monuments, paintings, political posters, and the performing
arts – and demonstrated an inextricable relationship between them and
the personality cult of Kim Il Sung, the supreme leader of North Korea
for over four
decades, and continued by his son, Kim Jong Il. Both ancient and
modern histories were briefly explained in order to indicate why North
Korea would choose the path of total isolation, and the circumstances
that
allowed Kim Il Sung to claim power and exert his will so thoroughly
over
the North Korean people. The same explanation also provided a
contextual
base from which to evaluate the circumstances surrounding the
production
of North Korean art; that of total state dominance with repeating
nationalistic
and communist themes ties to the cult of Kim Il Sung. While the
future
of North Korean art, or the Korean Peninsula for that matter, cannot be
guessed with any accuracy, the art of North Korea under Kim Il Sung,
and
now Kim Jong Il, has been the art of propaganda.
Bae, Eun-Joo. (2000). As summit eases tension, North Korean art, film and culture may head to South. http://www.koreaherald.co.kr/SITE/data/html_dir/2000/06/14/200006140029.asp Consulted 2002 April 2. Bakker, Paul. (1995). North
Korea: March 1995. Bone, Simon. (1998). Life
After Tyranny. Choe, Yong-Shik. (2000). North Korea's art still propaganda weapon, but Communists can now have romance, too. http://www.koreaherald.co.kr/SITE/data/html_dir/2000/06/15/200006150032.asp Consulted 2002 March 25. Cumings, Bruce. (1997). Korea’s Place in the Sun: A Modern History. New York: Norton. DPRK Official Homepage. (2002). http://www.korea-dpr.com/ Consulted 2002 March 20. Franken, David. (1994). A
Journey into North Korea 1994 Hunter, Helen-Louise. (1999). Kim Il-song’s North Korea. Westport: Praeger. Kang, Chol-Hwan. (2002).
Graffiti Involves Life Risking in North Korea. Kim, Chan-Dong. (2000). Korean Culture and Arts Foundation Art Center. (lower section of the page) http://www.gwangju-biennale.org/last-biennale/2000/english/speciex-concept-no.htm Consulted 2002 March 24. Oberdorfer, Don. (2001). The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History. Indianapolis: Basic Books. Storey, Robert & English, Alex. (2001). Lonely Planet: Korea. Victoria: Lonely Planet Publications. Suh, Dae-Sook. (1988). Kim Il Sung: The North Korean Leader. New York: Columbia University Press. Sullivan, Kevin. (1997 Jan 21). N. Koreas’ New Kim Cult Remaking Son Into Father. Washington Post , A, 12:1. The Peoples Great
Leader: Great Leader, Comrade Kim Il Sung’s 70th Birthday The Great Mother: Comrade Kim Jeong-Sook. (1982) Pyongyang: Chosun Publishing. Yoo, Jae-Kil. (2000). North Korea Art Today. (upper section of the page)http://www.gwangju-biennale.org/last-biennale/2000/english/speciex-concept-no.htm Consulted 2002 March 25. |
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